InNo+hyejijun94+04.06.11

=The Roots of the Cold War = = = =  =


 * On March 12, Truman made a speech about the commitment of the US to support economically and militarily, all the nations that are threatened by Communism. This speech was known as the Truman Doctrine.


 * This is a true text from the NSC-68. National Security Council Report 68 was a 58 page formerly classified report. It was one of the most significant statements of American policy in the Cold War.


 * This is a process chart that illustrates the significant issue that greatly impact to citizens in the United States of America, the Hiss Case. This incident became a focus for American anxiety about the secret role that Communists might be playing in the nation's public life.

=  =

The Roots of the Cold War
__The Bolsheviks:__
 * 1917, two revolutions took place in Russia
 * March, a coalition of antitsarist groups overthrew the regime of Nicholas II
 * established a provisional government, first led by Prince Georgy Lvov and then by Alexander Kerensky
 * November, the provisional government was overthrown by Vladimir Lenin's Communist party, which later became the soviets
 * Lenin's followers were known as Bolsheviks
 * Lenin died in 1924 and Stalin came to power in 1928
 * The Bolsheviks wanted to replace capitalism with an international communist state
 * March 1919, they established the Comintern (Communist International) to overthrow the international bourgeoisie
 * Civil War - the US supported the anti-Bolshevik Whites in their fight against the Bolshevik Reds
 * The Reds won the civil war
 * established the **Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)** in late 1922
 * The US did not recognize the Soviet Union formally until 1933

__The Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact:__
 * Under Stalin's Five Year Plans, the Soviet state moved toward a greater economic control
 * First Five Year Plan - collectivized the peasantry and compelled the rapid development of new heavy industry
 * Franklin Roosevelt realized that the US policy of nonrecognition no longer made sense
 * he invited Soviet foreign minister Maxim Litvinov to Washington
 * two nations then agreed to establish formal diplomatic relations
 * Stalin's dislike for the Germans, British, and French was great
 * He feared that if war came, Britain and France would let his nation face the German onslaught on its own
 * So he considered to negotiate an agreement to provide for Soviet neutrality in the event of war
 * the **Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact**
 * The Nazi-Soviet pact was actually a delaying tactic for both sides
 * The USSR was not ready for war, Adolf Hitler wanted to avoid fight in the east until Germany was victorious in the west
 * Hitler invaded the USSR in June 1941

__A Marriage of Convenience:__
 * March 1941, Roosevelt persuaded the Congress to pass the Lend-Lease Act (authorized the release of military aid to countries fighting Germany and Japan)
 * The purpose of Lend-Lease Act was to keep Britain and China afloat until Roosevelt could bring America around
 * Soviets entered the war in June 1941, Roosevelt welcomed them as allies and sent them Lend-Lease aid as well
 * After the US entered the war, efforts were made to improve the relation between US and the Soviet
 * Continuing contention - the opening of a second front in Europe
 * May 1942, Stalin sent a foreign minister to Washington to urge Roosevelt to take some action to relieve German pressure on the Soviet front
 * Roosevelt promised an invasion of German-occupied France before the end of the year
 * British prime minister (Winston Churchill) believed that the only way to lose the war was to invade France prematurely
 * Churchill persuaded Roosevelt to accept his own plan for an invasion of North Africa
 * Stalin got upset of the change in his plan
 * Fearing the Stalin might doubt his Western partners, Churchill traveled to Moscow to placate him

__The Big Three At Tehran:__
 * Stalin faced disappointment again when Roosevelt and Churchill postponed once more the invasion of France
 * The first face-to-face meeting of the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) took place in November 1943 in Tehran
 * The important issues discussed at Tehran included the status of a defeated Germany and the postwar borders of Poland, but the focus of the four-day conference was the new invasion plan code-named Overload

__Yalta:__
 * The Big Three met for the second and last time in February 1945 at Yalta on the Black Sea
 * Four issues were mentioned:
 * the creation of an organization to succeed the disbanded League of Nations
 * the future of Eastern Europe (esp. Poland)
 * the status of Germany
 * Soviet entry into the Pacific war
 * Stalin wanted:
 * veto power for permanent members of the Security Council and separate General Assembly seats for Belorussia and Ukraine
 * recognition for the Communist government he had set up in Lublin
 * ten billion dollars' worth of industrial equipment as war reparations from the defeated Germany
 * take back all of the territory lost to Japan during the Russo-Japanese War
 * Roosevelt and Churchill accepted most of these demands
 * The Red Army's four years of fighting had placed the Soviets in a commanding military position
 * Stalin wanted to transform this advantage into lasting political gains

__The Division of Germany:__
 * When American and British forces crossed the Rhine in March 1945, **Dwight D. Eisenhower** (supreme Allied commander) pursued three main goals:
 * capturing the Ruhr Valley, Germany's industrial heartland
 * preventing a Nazi withdrawal to the Bavarian Alps
 * avoiding an unintended clash with Soviet troops heading west
 * Eisenhower sent a cable to Stalin, informing him of the western Allies' plans and requesting similar information concerning Red Army intentions
 * This angered Churchill because Eisenhower was ceding Berlin to the Soviets
 * The Soviets began their main assault on the German capital
 * The final phase of the battle began on April 26
 * street fighting, SS units roaming the city, executing any soldiers found to have abandoned their posts
 * April 30, Hitler killed himself
 * May 2, Berlin surrendered, Adm. Karl Donitz (Hitler's successor as German head of state) offered to conclude a separate peace with the western Allies so that the German army could continue fighting the Soviets
 * New US president, Harry Truman refused his offer, insisting that the Germans surrender simultaneously on all fronts
 * May 7, 1945, Germany finally surrendered
 * Following the surrender of Germany, the country was divided into four occupation zones controlled by the US, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union

__The Manhattan Project:__
 * President Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945
 * Rather than shocked by the death of Roosevelt, Truman was shocked by what he had been up to in New Mexico
 * As vice president, the former Missouri senator had been considered too low-level to be briefed on the Manhattan Project - code name given the US effort to develop an atomic bomb
 * Truman wasn't fully briefed until April 25, when Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson told him that they are going to complete the most terrible weapon ever known in human history
 * Stimson predicted that modern civilization might be completely destroyed
 * The idea of the Manhattan Project originated in August 1939 letter that Hungarian emigre Leo Szilard persuaded his friend Albert Einstein to write, informing President Roosevelt of some troubling developments in nuclear physics
 * Subsequent US atomic effort was supervised by Maj, Gen. Leslie R. Groves of the Army Corps of Engineers, with physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer directing the scientific work
 * December 1942, Italian emigre Enrico Fermi created the first controlled nuclear chain reaction (first step taken)
 * The most famous Manhattan Project site was Los Alamos, New Mexico, where the design and testing of the bombs took place on the grounds of a private school for boys that Oppenheimer had visited during the 1920s
 * The existence of the Manhattan Project was such a closely held secret that even Truman wasn't informed until after Roosevelt's death

__Knowledges of the Bomb:__
 * British knew all about the Manhattan Project but the Soviets hadn't yet been informed
 * 1944, physicist Niels Bohr urged Churchill and Roosevelt in separate meetings to tell Stalin what was going on
 * Soviet cooperation was essential to the development of postwar atomic controls
 * Roosevelt and Churchill chose to keep Stalin in the dark
 * Truman adopted Roosevelt's policy but the question whether or not to inform the Soviets continued to be discussed by the Intern Committee (established in May 1945) to advice the president on atomic policy
 * Members of this group often discussed about the 'demonstration' that dropping a bomb would make
 * The group had much wider goals than merely the defeat of Japan

__Potsdam:__
 * July 1945, Truman traveled to the Berlin suburb of Potsdam to meet with Churchill and Stalin
 * Most of the items on the agenda involved:
 * the German occupation
 * invasion of Japan
 * Manhattan project
 * First day (July 17), Stalin reaffirmed his promise to enter the Pacific War and informed his allies that he had been receiving peace overtures from the Japanese
 * He even specified a date - August 15
 * July 18, Truman was informed that the first atomic test had been even more successful than anticipated
 * US could end the Pacific War quickly and without Soviet involvement
 * Truman didn't tell Stalin until nearly a week later
 * Stalin already knew about the bomb from Soviet spies within the Manhattan Project
 * a secret Soviet atomic program was already under way
 * The attempt to withhold knowledge of the Manhattan Project confirmed Stalin's fear - that the atomic bomb meant to be used against the USSR as well as Japan

__Containment:__
 * After the bombardment of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, Soviet-American cooperation broke down completely
 * Soviets rearranged the map of Easter Europe
 * February 22, George F. Kennan, the charge d'affaires at the US embassy in Moscow, had sent a cable to Secretary of State Byrnes
 * Kennan's memorandum (now famous as the Long Telegram) outlined the strategy of containment that soon became the basis of postwar US foreign policy
 * Kennan believed in two goals for the postwar USSR:
 * establishing a security corridor around its homeland - reflected traditional Russian imperialism
 * spreading Communism to other countries - Marxist-Leninist evangelism mattered much less to Russians than secure borders
 * Kennan discussed four regions of vital interests to the US:
 * Western Europe, the Western Hemisphere, Japan, and Middle East

__The Truman Doctrine:__
 * Truman realized that there was little he could do to liberate territory already under Soviet control
 * Defeat of Germany + decline of Britain and France = the Soviets were the dominant military power in Europe
 * Only substantial American aid could keep Greece and Turkey out of the Soviet sphere
 * Truman instructed Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson to meet with the congressional leadership
 * Acheson claimed that if Greece and Turkey were allowed to fall, other countries would follow them (ex. Iran to the south and India to the east)
 * Impressed by his claim, Republicans agreed to appropriate military and economic aid for Greece and Turkey
 * Truman agreed and made his speech on March 12
 * this came to be known as Truman Doctrine - the commitment of the US to aid (both economically and militarily) any nation threatened by Communism

__Disarray in Postwar Europe:__
 * Jan. 1947, before the Truman Doctrine speech, the US, British, French, and Soviet foreign ministers gathered in Moscow to discuss the future of Germany
 * At Yalta and at Potsdam, it had been agreed that Germany would be reunited under a central, freely elected gov. but they found this quarrelsome
 * Disputes arose at the Moscow conference over the war reparations
 * the level of industry that should be permitted in a reunited Germany
 * whether the great coal and steel industries should be placed under international control
 * how the centralized new Germany government should be
 * No agreement reached
 * **George C. Marshall** (new US secretary) was convinced that the Soviets wanted a deadlock
 * Economic and political situation in Western Europe was becoming dire
 * reason: nearly six years of bombing
 * Unemployment was severe
 * The effect of this economic turmoil having on the political situation in Europe was seen by everyone, except for the Soviets
 * Marshall instructed Kennan (appointed the State Department's new director of policy planning) to investigate the economic situation in Europe and determine what support the US might be able to provide

__The Marshall Plan:__
 * June 5, 1947, in a speech held by Secretary of State Marshall outlined the foreign policy problems that the US was facing in Europe
 * Marshall proposed a solution
 * he wanted the European nations to think of a plan based on the principals of self-help, resource sharing, and German reintegration
 * he wanted the US to fund it
 * His offer was taken up by the British and French foreign ministers
 * issued a joint communique inviting twenty-two nations & representatives from occupied Germany to a conference in Paris
 * conference that would begin the work of drawing up a cooperative plan
 * Sixteen nations took part, not including the Soviets and five of its client states
 * Stalin opposed the plan for several reasons
 * his vision - free movement of goods and services meant free movement of people as well
 * western leaders saw his antagonism as another effort to block postwar stabilization
 * this added to growing international tension
 * The European plan because the basis of the European Recovery Program - proposed to Congress in Dec. 1947
 * The price tag on the bill was a lot
 * Opponents argued that the US economy couldn't afford it
 * Supporters pointed out that the plan would create new export markets for US goods and that if it weren't passed soon, there might not be any European democracies left
 * The bill passed in April
 * US gov. spent billions to support the plan
 * The Marshall Plan was the most expensive foreign policy in US history
 * The goal of this plan was to promote European economic recovery and halt the political destabilization that economic hardship was causing

__The Berlin Airlift:__
 * The Soviet's favor of Germany became clear, US and British began to reinforce their sectors
 * Jan. 1947, Americans and British merged their occupation zones, creating a single political unit - Bizonia
 * March 1948, the French agreed to add their sector, creating Trizonia (later known as West Germany)
 * Mid-June, the US & British authorities took an even more significant step in the creation of an independent state in western Germany
 * introduced a new currency - the Deutsche mark
 * this was crucial to the economic recovery of western Germany because the Nazi Reichsmark (only currency in circulation) was worthless
 * no more bartering
 * June 23, new currency appeared in West Berlin
 * The Soviets soon halted the shipments of supplies to West Berlin
 * Thus, a massive airlift began by the US and British on June 26
 * May 12, the Soviets finally lifted the blockade
 * West Berlin had become an international symbol of US resolve to counter Soviet aggression without resorting to direct conflict

__Nato and the Warsaw Pact:__
 * Truman and Marshall thought that militarization of the Cold War was unnecessary
 * After WWII, America's European allies demobilized, but the Soviets did not
 * March 1948, Britain, France, and the Benelux countries signed the Treaty of Brussels - provided mutual defense
 * This alliance needed the help of the US against the Soviet expansionism
 * As a result, the **North Atlantic Treaty Organization** (NATO) was established by the North Atlantic Treaty, signed in April 1949
 * After West Germany's formal admission to NATO, the Soviets responded with the creation of a rival military alliance:
 * the **Warsaw Treaty Organization/Warsaw Pact** - composed of the USSR and its client states in Eastern Europe

__The Hiss Case:__
 * **Alger Hiss**, a former State Department official who had accompanied Roosevelt to Yalta and later presided over the creation of the United Nations
 * August 5, Hiss appeared before the committee
 * Hiss was relatively cool and relaxed, and he denied everything
 * Republican **Richard M. Nixon** questioned Chambers privately and decided that he was telling the truth
 * it was televised live
 * Under intense questioning by Nixon, Hiss lost his cool
 * Hiss was charged of perjury on Dec. 15
 * Hiss case became a focus for American anxiety about the secret role that Communists might be playing in the nation's public life

__The Mccarthyism:__
 * Nixon became famous during the Hiss case
 * Democrats began calling him Nixon Tricky Dick
 * Less than three weeks after Hiss's perjury conviction, McCarthy had delivered a Lincoln Day speech to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling
 * A wave of anticommunist hysteria began - this period was named for McCarthy because it was characterized by the frequent use of misrepresentation in which he specialized
 * The fears of Communist infiltration that the Hiss case aroused + the August 1949 explosion of a Soviet atomic bomb + the victory of Mao's Communists in China = ensured McCarthy a wide and compliant audience

__NSC-68:__
 * Congress passed the National Security Act of 1947 - reorganized the gov.'s military and foreign policy establishments
 * The new law:
 * streamlined the armed forces by consolidating the War and Navy Departments into a single Department of Defense
 * created the Central Intelligence Agency as a successor to the wartime Office of Strategic Services and the **National Security Council (NSC)** as a focus for national security planning within the executive branch
 * Jan. 1950, Truman requested the NSC to conduct a comprehensive review of US national security strategy
 * The result was a fifty-eight page memorandum - **NSC-68**
 * this document laid out in detail the national security strategy that the US would follow for the next twenty years
 * NSC-68 stated that the only way to meet the new Soviet threat was with a massive military buildup
 * Kennan disagreed
 * NSC-68, which called for a military rather than a political response to the Soviet threat, determined US foreign policy for the next twenty years

Summary
There are numerous reasons that damaged the relationship between US and the USSR, which eventually triggered the Cold War. The Manhattan Project confirming Stalin's worst fear, the commitment of the US to aid all nations threatened by Communism, economic disarray in Western Europe, the establishment of NATO against the Soviet expansionism, and the NSC-68 delivered on April 7 are all crucial roots of the Cold War.

**Questions**
1. What does the fact that Truman didn't even know about the existence of the Manhattan Project until after Roosevelt's death convey? 2. How did the US attempt to withhold the knowledge about the Manhattan Project influenced the USSR? 3. What made the introduction of a new currency significant to the economic recovery of western Germany? 4. How did the Soviets responded with the creation of the NATO? 5. What is the NSC-68?